The Power of the Poppy

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The following is excerpted from The Power of the Poppy, available from Inner Traditions. 

 

In the Beginning

Neolithic and Mesolithic archaeologists are at a distinct disadvantage.
No written records remain of the people they are studying; any legends of their
traditions and cultures have long since been forgotten, buried under multiple
waves of cultural invasions and counterinvasions. While tribes may have built
stone megaliths, they generally resided in wooden huts or longhouses that were ill-suited
for surviving for millennia in the moist European clime. We have only the most
scattered and fragmentary evidence left to us, and piecing it together to find
any kind of definitive answer is challenging in the extreme. The best we can
hope for is educated guesswork and enlightened speculation — which must, of
course, be colored by the prejudices and preconceptions of those who are left
to interpret these puzzles.

 

The Dawn of Poppy Cultivation

Approximately 7,500 years ago agricultural communities began
to develop along the basin of the Danube River. Within less than two hundred
years they had spread to what would become Belgium and northern France in the
west and Ukraine in the east. Where their ancestors had foraged and hunted for
a living, these people (called linearbandkeramik, or LBK,
for their distinctive pottery) worked the land for their food. They took
cues — and seeds — from the Near East, where farming had been taking place for
millennia. Among the charred remains of their fires, archaeologists have found
traces of emmer and einkorn wheat, linseed
(flax), lentils, and peas, crops that originated in modern-day Turkey, Syria,
Israel, and Iran. But amid all those eastern seeds was one other
nonnative plant that came not from the east but from the southwest — Papaver
somniferum,
otherwise known as the opium poppy.

Today most botanists believe P. somniferum descends
from Papaver
setigerum,
a wild poppy growing in the western Mediterranean. P.
setigerum
is found in Italy, northern Africa, eastern Spain, the
Mediterranean coast of France, and the Canary Islands. P.
setigerum
is slightly smaller than P. somniferum; its leaves
are thinner, with long, jagged teeth tipped with a bristle that is not found on
P.
somniferum
leaves. They also lack P. somniferum's waxy
coating. Like its domesticated cousin, P. setigerum contains
morphine alkaloids; indeed, the two poppies are so similar that some botanists
believe them to be the same species.

It has been suggested that poppies were introduced to LBK
agriculture through trade with the La Hoguette culture, a group known primarily
by its distinctive bone-tempered pottery. The La Hoguette culture is believed
to have originated in southern and southwestern France. They descended from an
earlier impressed ware culture that resided on the shores of the Mediterranean.
La Hoguette and LBK pottery has been found together at many sites east and west
of the Rhine, suggesting that contact and trade took place between the two
cultures.

From there, poppies continued on their journey northward. A dig at
Raunds, a site in rural Northamptonshire, England, uncovered eight opium poppy
seeds dated from the early Neolithic period (5,800-5,600 years ago). While
opium poppies can grow as weeds, the lack of other weeds in the ditch and the
absence of cereal remains suggest this plant may have been a crop in its own
right. While Neolithic civilization has traditionally been
envisioned as scattered collections of hunter-gatherers who supplemented their
foraging with primitive agriculture, the Raunds poppy seeds reveal trade routes
between Britain and the Continent. They also suggest that the people of Raunds
held poppies in high regard — high enough, at least, to carry seeds across the English
Channel, then haul them into the East Midlands and plant them.

At Cuevo de los Murciélagos (Cave of the Bats, a Neolithic burial
site located in Albuñol, Granada, in southern Spain) we find still more
evidence of poppy usage. Thanks to the cave's arid conditions, the round, woven
grass bags that were buried with the dead have been preserved, along with their
contents — large numbers of poppy capsules, which have been shown by carbon
dating to be more than six thousand years old. Given the somnolence caused by
ingestion of poppies, it seems clear that even at this early date they were
associated with death and, presumably, with shamanic journeying.

Excavations at Egolzwil, an archaeological site located in
Switzerland's Lucerne canton, have revealed signs of poppy cultivation dating
back more than six thousand years, including poppy seed cakes and poppy heads.
These may have been used to feed their cattle in emergencies (cattle generally
dislike foraging on bitter-tasting poppies and will eat them only if no better
food is available), but these farmers would certainly have known that poppies
can produce intoxication and even death in cattle if too many are given. Yet
evidence suggests that poppies were the most common crop at Egolzwil, more common
than club wheat, barley, or flax.

Even earlier evidence
of opium poppy use comes from recent underwater archaeological work at La
Marmotta, a site in Lake Bracciano, Italy (northwest of Rome). La Marmotta was
occupied by a Neolithic farming community for about five hundred years before
it was abandoned, then submerged by water some 7,700 years ago. Based on the
sophisticated artifacts found at the La Marmotta site — and the paucity of
evidence for any other contemporaneous cities or villages in the area — archaeologists
believe this was a colony from another civilization in Greece or the Near East.
And given the model boats (along with a well-preserved longboat found buried in
the mud), it seems likely that there was considerable water traffic between the
La Marmotta colony and traders from other civilizations.

"This was not an ordinary village," says Maria Antonietta Fugazzola
Delpino, director of the La Marmotta expedition. "The people were in touch with
other communities in the Mediterranean. We picture it as a kind of
highway — there were many ships coming and going." Organic remains preserved
beneath three meters of limestone included poppy seeds, presumably cultivated
for food, oil, medicine, and possibly for religious use. It may be here that
poppies and their seeds were first brought eastward from Europe. Two thousand
years later they would be seen again in the kingdom of Sumeria.

 

Exploring the Archaeological Record

Most of what we know of the LBK and La Hoguette cultures
comes from shards of their pottery and scraps gleaned from long-buried campfire
sites where they cooked their meals. We do not know whether they encountered
each other through trade, through warfare, or (as seems likely, given what we
know of posthistoric humankind) through some combination thereof. We do not
know whether the LBK culture consisted of colonists moving in via the Balkans
(as some theorize) or whether it sprung up among the indigenous people after
they were exposed to pottery, agriculture, and other accoutrements of the
"Neolithic Revolution."

If we know little about LBK culture, we know even less about
the La Hoguette peoples. Their sites show evidence that they, like
contemporaneous Mediterranean cultures, had domesticated sheep and goats but
not cattle or pigs. Their pottery also shows evidence of Mediterranean
influence, but the stone tools recovered at their sites are very similar to
those used by earlier regional Mesolithic cultures. And while we believe that
the LBK culture acquired poppies from the La Hoguette people, thanks to P.
setigerum
's distribution, we cannot say for certain. While wild
poppies grow in the region of the La Hoguette culture, to date no seeds have
been found at the few La Hoguette sites that have been excavated.

It is difficult to distinguish
between the carbonized seeds of wild and domesticated poppies. Furthermore,
their small size means that only a very few poppy seeds have been found at LBK
sites. This makes it difficult to determine how extensive the cultivation of
poppies was among Neolithic farmers, especially since cultivated poppies can
quickly spread and become weeds given the proper soil and climate. As a result,
some archaeologists have tried to downplay poppy cultivation among Central
Europe's Neolithic and Mesolithic peoples, claiming that all evidence of
poppies at their sites comes from wild poppies growing in the area. (This, of
course, begs the question of how these wild poppies came to Central Europe in
the first place.)

An artifact found in Meinling, Germany, however, suggests
that poppies were of some considerable importance. This pot is more than six
thousand years old and was made from clay tempered (mixed) with poppy seeds.
While it is common for potters to temper clay with inert matter like straw or
sand, poppy seeds are oily and not particularly suitable for use as a temper.
Their usage in this context suggests this pot had some special purpose. Given
the role of poppies in other cultures, we can speculate that it had some
religious significance and may have been used as a sacramental vessel.

Furthermore, we should note that much early agriculture among
hunter-gatherers involved "prestige" crops rather than staples. Early
agriculture was laborious, backbreaking work. Forests were cleared with flint
rocks chipped to produce an edge. Straight sticks were used to dig roots out of
the ground, forked sticks to till the dirt, and sharpened stones to harvest
wild-growing and cultivated grains. With such inefficient tools, it was
difficult to produce large-scale food crops, especially in the moist, heavy
soil of the LBK region. Hence, it is likely that many of the earliest crops
were grown not to support the population but for ceremonial purposes. Many
believe that grains were first grown to produce not bread but beer, or, as one
archaeologist put it, "Thirst rather than hunger may have been the stimulus
behind the origin of small grain agriculture."

Poppies produced oil that could be used in lamps — but animal fat
provided by abundant herds and game would serve a similar purpose. Poppy seed
provided a food source — but so did the hazelnuts that grew wild throughout the
region. It is most unlikely that primitive farmers expended so much effort to
establish poppies while remaining unaware of their psychoactive properties.

 

The Religion of Hunter-Gatherers

We limit the role of religion to "spiritual" questions, and we
draw hard and fast lines between facts and myths. This is a very recent
development, and one that is still controversial in many quarters. So too is
our idea that the "soul" is something unique to humankind, not to mention our
separation of this world from the heavenly realms. Among hunter-gatherer cultures,
these distinctions are meaningless. They live in a world where the spiritual is
immanent, where they have social relationships not only with their family and
clan but also with the animals they hunt, the springs from which they draw
water, and the plants that provide them with roots and berries.

The specific nature of
this life force is envisioned differently among different groups. The
hunter-gatherer Mbuti pygmies of the Congo envision the forest as father and
mother. They sing to it while going about their daily affairs; in times of
trouble they call on it by blowing their molimo trumpets and
singing special songs to ensure it "awakens happy."8 To Australian
Aborigines the "eternal" is present in daily life and temporal space, even if
it sometimes becomes obscured in the day-to-day rhythms of an individual's
existence; the spirit world presents itself in the rocks, trees, dances, songs,
and experiences of the living. But the overarching theme remains:
the life force that animates humans also animates other beings; they are as
much a part of the community as the children and ancestors.

Because these "objects" are part of the community, they are
treated as such. They are not only spoken to, but spoken with.
They share their bodies and provide nourishment for the community, but they
also share their wisdom and provide counsel and encouragement. Alternately,
they may be hostile to the clan and treated with fear and healthy respect. The
hunter-gatherer lifestyle has little to do with the idyllic but fictitious
world of the "noble savage" — they live in a world where disease, starvation, and
injury are ever-present dangers and where those outside the clan are generally
seen either as threats or as potential prey. But whether friend or foe, they
are recognized as sentient and capable of communication.

Many world myths connect the development of agriculture to the gods.
Dionysus taught Hellenics the secrets of viniculture while Athena gave the
olive tree to the citizens of her namesake city. Various Native American tribes
speak of how Corn Maiden took pity upon hungry humankind and gave them the gift
of maize, while many Egyptologists connect the death and resurrection of Osiris
with the sowing and harvesting of wheat. We see these stories as "creation
myths" and "archetypal representations." But suppose we look at them from the
hunter-gatherer viewpoint — as literal truths?

If a species wished to propagate itself (and what species doesn't?),
hitching its wagon to the fortunes of Neolithic humans would be a superb way of
doing so. By communicating their likes and dislikes to the people who gathered their
fruits, they could establish a partnership with carriers who would take their
seeds farther than wind, water, or the vagaries of chance. They could ensure
their offspring would be placed in fitting soil with proper drainage and light,
not just scattered about randomly. They could take advantage of humankind's
mobility and tool-making skills to spread their range farther. Today some
people talk to their plants. Could it be that our hunter-gatherer ancestors
learned how to farm by listening to theirs?

One of the first plants to share its secrets was the poppy. In a
time when dysentery and stomach illnesses frequently proved fatal, the poppy
provided potent medicine against diarrhea. In a world where those who made it
to thirty were old and arthritis was commonplace, poppy provided relief from
pain and allowed those who consumed it to continue serving the clan as
productive hunters and foragers. Those who wished to explore alternate
realities through the use of plant allies found Poppy to be invaluable. By
drinking poppy tea or consuming poppy pods, they could induce hypnagogic states
and vivid dream-visions.

As it cemented its symbiotic relationship with humankind, Poppy
began developing higher concentrations of the alkaloids that were the secret of
its power. In return, those whom it served returned the favor, and soon P.
somniferum
was spreading across Europe and into Asia.

 

 

Teaser image by R@jeev, courtesy of Creative Commons license. 

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Ayahuasca Culture: Indigenous, Western, And The Future
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Ayahuasca Guide: Effects, Common Uses, Safety
The Amazonian brew, Ayahuasca has a long history and wide use. Read our guide to learn all about the tea from its beginnings up to modern-day interest.

 

Ayahuasca and the Godhead: An Interview with Wahid Azal of the Fatimiya Sufi Order
Wahid Azal, a Sufi mystic of The Fatimiya Sufi Order and an Islamic scholar, talks about entheogens, Sufism, mythology, and metaphysics.

 

Ayahuasca and the Feminine: Women’s Roles, Healing, Retreats, and More
Ayahuasca is lovingly called “grandmother” or “mother” by many. Just how feminine is the brew? Read to learn all about women and ayahuasca.

What Is the Standard of Care for Ketamine Treatments?
Ketamine therapy is on the rise in light of its powerful results for treatment-resistant depression. But, what is the current standard of care for ketamine? Read to find out.

What Is Dissociation and How Does Ketamine Create It?
Dissociation can take on multiple forms. So, what is dissociation like and how does ketamine create it? Read to find out.

Having Sex on Ketamine: Getting Physical on a Dissociative
Curious about what it could feel like to have sex on a dissociate? Find out all the answers in our guide to sex on ketamine.

Special K: The Party Drug
Special K refers to Ketamine when used recreationally. Learn the trends as well as safety information around this substance.

Kitty Flipping: When Ketamine and Molly Meet
What is it, what does it feel like, and how long does it last? Read to explore the mechanics of kitty flipping.

Ketamine vs. Esketamine: 3 Important Differences Explained
Ketamine and esketamine are used to treat depression. But what’s the difference between them? Read to learn which one is right for you: ketamine vs. esketamine.

Guide to Ketamine Treatments: Understanding the New Approach
Ketamine is becoming more popular as more people are seeing its benefits. Is ketamine a fit? Read our guide for all you need to know about ketamine treatments.

Ketamine Treatment for Eating Disorders
Ketamine is becoming a promising treatment for various mental health conditions. Read to learn how individuals can use ketamine treatment for eating disorders.

Ketamine Resources, Studies, and Trusted Information
Curious to learn more about ketamine? This guide includes comprehensive ketamine resources containing books, studies and more.

Ketamine Guide: Effects, Common Uses, Safety
Our ultimate guide to ketamine has everything you need to know about this “dissociative anesthetic” and how it is being studied for depression treatment.

Ketamine for Depression: A Mental Health Breakthrough
While antidepressants work for some, many others find no relief. Read to learn about the therapeutic uses of ketamine for depression.

Ketamine for Addiction: Treatments Offering Hope
New treatments are offering hope to individuals suffering from addiction diseases. Read to learn how ketamine for addiction is providing breakthrough results.

Microdosing Ketamine & Common Dosages Explained
Microdosing, though imperceivable, is showing to have many health benefits–here is everything you want to know about microdosing ketamine.

How to Ease a Ketamine Comedown
Knowing what to expect when you come down from ketamine can help integrate the experience to gain as much value as possible.

How to Store Ketamine: Best Practices
Learn the best ways how to store ketamine, including the proper temperature and conditions to maximize how long ketamine lasts when stored.

How To Buy Ketamine: Is There Legal Ketamine Online?
Learn exactly where it’s legal to buy ketamine, and if it’s possible to purchase legal ketamine on the internet.

How Long Does Ketamine Stay in Your System?
How long does ketamine stay in your system? Are there lasting effects on your body? Read to discover the answers!

How Ketamine is Made: Everything You Need to Know
Ever wonder how to make Ketamine? Read our guide to learn everything you need to know about the procedures of how Ketamine is made.

Colorado on Ketamine: First Responders Waiver Programs
Fallout continues after Elijah McClain. Despite opposing recommendations from some city council, Colorado State Health panel recommends the continued use of ketamine by medics for those demonstrating “excited delirium” or “extreme agitation”.

Types of Ketamine: Learn the Differences & Uses for Each
Learn about the different types of ketamine and what they are used for—and what type might be right for you. Read now to find out!

Kitty Flipping: When Ketamine and Molly Meet
What is it, what does it feel like, and how long does it last? Read to explore the mechanics of kitty flipping.

MDMA & Ecstasy Guide: Effects, Common Uses, Safety
Our ultimate guide to MDMA has everything you want to know about Ecstasy from how it was developed in 1912 to why it’s being studied today.

How To Get the Most out of Taking MDMA as a Couple
Taking MDMA as a couple can lead to exciting experiences. Read here to learn how to get the most of of this love drug in your relationship.

Common MDMA Dosage & Microdosing Explained
Microdosing, though imperceivable, is showing to have many health benefits–here is everything you want to know about microdosing MDMA.

Having Sex on MDMA: What You Need to Know
MDMA is known as the love drug… Read our guide to learn all about sex on MDMA and why it is beginning to makes its way into couple’s therapy.

How MDMA is Made: Common Procedures Explained
Ever wonder how to make MDMA? Read our guide to learn everything you need to know about the procedures of how MDMA is made.

Hippie Flipping: When Shrooms and Molly Meet
What is it, what does it feel like, and how long does it last? Explore the mechanics of hippie flipping and how to safely experiment.

How Cocaine is Made: Common Procedures Explained
Ever wonder how to make cocaine? Read our guide to learn everything you need to know about the procedures of how cocaine is made.

A Christmas Sweater with Santa and Cocaine
This week, Walmart came under fire for a “Let it Snow” Christmas sweater depicting Santa with lines of cocaine. Columbia is not merry about it.

Ultimate Cocaine Guide: Effects, Common Uses, Safety
This guide covers what you need to know about Cocaine, including common effects and uses, legality, safety precautions and top trends today.

NEWS: An FDA-Approved Cocaine Nasal Spray
The FDA approved a cocaine nasal spray called Numbrino, which has raised suspicions that the pharmaceutical company, Lannett Company Inc., paid off the FDA..

The Ultimate Guide to Cannabis Bioavailability
What is bioavailability and how can it affect the overall efficacy of a psychedelic substance? Read to learn more.

Cannabis Research Explains Sociability Behaviors
New research by Dr. Giovanni Marsicano shows social behavioral changes occur as a result of less energy available to the neurons. Read here to learn more.

The Cannabis Shaman
If recreational and medical use of marijuana is becoming accepted, can the spiritual use as well? Experiential journalist Rak Razam interviews Hamilton Souther, founder of the 420 Cannabis Shamanism movement…

Cannabis Guide: Effects, Common Uses, Safety
Our ultimate guide to Cannabis has everything you want to know about this popular substances that has psychedelic properties.

Cannabis and Ayahuasca: Mixing Entheogenic Plants
Cannabis and Ayahuasca: most people believe they shouldn’t be mixed. Read this personal experience peppered with thoughts from a procannabis Peruvian Shaman.

CBD-Rich Cannabis Versus Single-Molecule CBD
A ground-breaking study has documented the superior therapeutic properties of whole plant Cannabis extract as compared to synthetic cannabidiol (CBD), challenging the medical-industrial complex’s notion that “crude” botanical preparations are less effective than single-molecule compounds.

Cannabis Has Always Been a Medicine
Modern science has already confirmed the efficacy of cannabis for most uses described in the ancient medical texts, but prohibitionists still claim that medical cannabis is “just a ruse.”

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