Schizophrenia is often viewed and considered to be one of the most, if not most, serious mental illnesses known to modern medicine. Characterized by inexplicable Jekyll and Hyde-like voices, many regard this debilitating condition as the epitome of insanity.
Without a known cause or cure, individuals with this condition are typically presented with two options: heavy medication offering new challenges or societal marginalization as their condition takes hold and they become pushed into the darkest recesses of society.
But what if the solution to this condition and issue was as simple as a shift in perspective?
What if the solution was to consider schizophrenia not as deranged, irrational voices but rather as shamanic whispers? And for the person to be regarded as a spiritual conduit, a shaman, rather than the insane?
“The shaman swims in the same waters that the psychotic drowns in.”
-Dr. Joseph Campbell
Yes, this topic is fragile, and this conversation is volatile, with many daring individuals brave enough to put forth arguments vouching for the idea that one of the most serious mental illnesses shouldn’t be considered an illness but rather a supernatural ability, often met with swift and adverse responses.
“Emphasis must be given and clarification must be made regarding the difference between shamanism and pre-shamanism. While many an academic, within anthropological literature, will attest to the “untenable” state of the “schizophrenia metaphor” – that significant phenomenological differences do indeed exist between the shamanic and schizophrenic states of consciousness – this article aims to draw attention to argument claiming the similarities existent between schizophrenia and the condition preceding shamanism; pre-shamanism.”
Shamanism and schizophrenia: a state-specific approach to the “schizophrenia metaphor” of shamanic states. Richard Noll. The New School for Social Research.
Despite this, the idea has intrigued psychologists for decades, mainly due to the surprising number of similarities between the two conditions or phenomena, schizophrenia and pre-shamanism, respectively. With many academics noticing that the only difference existing between the two is the culture in which it is recognized.
Cultural Perceptions and Labeling
The following case and argument, as supported by academic research and professional speculation, is bold but presents a compelling thesis. It suggests that the perception and labeling of individuals exhibiting symptoms of schizophrenia or pre-shamanism depend largely on cultural context.
What do I mean by this exactly? Cultural perception and nothing more.
In Western society, such behaviors are generally viewed as negative and debilitating. However, in many tribal societies, these same behaviors can be seen as a sign of potential spiritual ability, provided the individual receives the right training.
“Nine months after our return to the U.S., I sought out Malidoma Somé, a renowned West African shaman. In the culture of his Dagara people, schizophrenics are not viewed pathologically, but often as mediums bringing messages to the community from the spirit world…He still speaks of a vast imaginative terrain that he’s covered and continues to traverse. And he is still possessed of a remarkable ability to “tune in” to the thought patterns of other people, including me.”
The parent of a schizophrenic child who sought the aid of a West African shaman to aid his son.
Recognition of Shamanistic Potential
This perspective is supported by academic research, including the work of Julian Silverman, who noted that ‘acute schizophrenic behaviors in our culture’ and ‘shaman inspiration gathering behaviors of certain primitive cultures are considered in terms of several core psychological factors. And that significant differences between acute schizophrenics and shamans are not found in the sequence of underlying psychological events that define their abnormal experiences. One major difference is emphasized though, a difference in the degree of cultural acceptance.’
In primitive cultures, where such a unique life crisis resolution is tolerated, the abnormal experience, shamanism, is typically beneficial to the individual. Cognitively and affectively, he is regarded as someone with expanded consciousness. However, in a culture that does not provide referential guides for understanding this type of crisis experience, the individual—in this case, a schizophrenic—typically suffers an intensification of his original anxieties.
Thus, behaviors viewed as psychiatric symptoms in our society may be effectively channeled by the prevailing institutional structures in certain indigenous societies so that they may perform a specific function within the overall culture. Ultimately, these individuals undergo rigorous training and initiation to become shamans, roles that are highly respected and integral to their communities.
In layman’s terms, instead of being labeled as sick and cast aside as mentally ill, the person may be recognized for their abilities and given a role in society. They may be noted as having expanded consciousness and initiated as a shaman, which is a journey involving intense practices. The individual trains in several disciplines, including the use of plant medicines, honing their abilities to play a significant role in their culture.
The Role of Plant Medicines in Shamanism Apprenticeship
In the context of shamanic practices, plant medicines serve as both a critical training tool and a gateway to deeper spiritual realms. Plant medicines such as ayahuasca, psilocybin mushrooms, and other entheogens play a profound role in shamanism apprenticeship. They provide not only the means to access altered states of consciousness but also facilitate the transformative journey from pre-shamanism to full shamanic initiation.
Plant Medicines as Catalysts for Spiritual Insight
Plant medicines are often regarded as “teacher plants” in many indigenous cultures because they can induce profound, visionary experiences that provide insights and knowledge beyond the ordinary waking state. The use of these plants allows apprentice shamans, or neophytes, to explore spiritual realms, communicate with spirit guides, and receive guidance that is crucial for their development as healers and spiritual leaders.
Research indicates that these altered states of consciousness facilitate experiences integral to the shamanic journey. A study by Winkelman (1996) highlights that shamanic practices, including the use of psychoactive substances, activate a specific state of consciousness characterized by enhanced neural integration and heightened spiritual awareness.
This state enables apprentice shamans to transcend ordinary perception and access deeper layers of consciousness where they can interact with the spirit world.
Training in Navigating Altered States
The apprenticeship process involves rigorous training to navigate and control the experiences induced by plant medicines. This training helps the neophyte develop the ability to enter and exit altered states at will, interpret the visions and messages received, and use this knowledge for healing and guiding others in their community. The role of the shamanic mentor is crucial in this process, providing support and instruction on how to safely and effectively use these powerful tools.
“This paper presents evidence that some—but not all—religious experts in a particular faith may have a schizophrenia-like psychotic process which is managed or mitigated by their religious practice, in that they are able to function effectively and are not identified by their community as ill.
We suggest that for some individuals, the apprenticeship trained practice of talking with the gods, in conjunction with a non-stigmatizing identity, may shape the content and emotional tone of voices associated with a psychotic process.”
Luhrmann, T.M., Dulin, J. & Dzokoto, V. The Shaman and Schizophrenia, Revisited. Cult Med Psychiatry (2023).
Plant Medicines and Shamanic Illness
Another critical aspect of the apprenticeship is the concept of shamanic illness, a transformative crisis that often precedes full shamanic initiation. This illness is sometimes induced or exacerbated by the use of plant medicines, serving as a rite of passage that tests the neophyte’s resilience and capacity for spiritual growth.
Curiously enough, this rite of passage within the process of shamanic initiation, characterized by an exacerbation of the illness, draws striking similarities to the difficulties that psychotics experience when using psychedelics.
The experiences during this crisis are seen as necessary for the apprentice to confront their inner darkness, purge psychological and spiritual blockages, and emerge stronger and more enlightened.
Scientific research supports the therapeutic potential of such experiences. A study by Kuypers et al. (2016) found that ayahuasca and similar plant medicines can facilitate significant psychological and emotional healing, helping individuals to process trauma and integrate profound insights into their lives.
In the shamanic context, this healing process is guided and interpreted within a supportive cultural framework, ensuring that the neophyte’s experiences contribute to their development as a shaman rather than leading to pathology.
Integration of Plant Medicine Experiences
The final phase of the apprenticeship involves integrating the knowledge and skills gained through plant medicine experiences into everyday life and shamanic practice. This integration is crucial for the apprentice to apply their insights in practical ways, whether through healing practices, spiritual guidance, or other shamanic roles.
The ability to integrate these experiences is often seen as a hallmark of a true shaman, distinguishing them from individuals who may have similar experiences but lack the training and support to use them effectively.
“The triggers of shamanic and psychotic experiences are also related, but while psychotic experiences endure and intensify under uncontrollable circumstances, shamanic sickness is ameliorated by ritualized and controlled engagement of altered states of consciousness. Shamanic vocation, when and where it is culturally accepted, does not lead to progressive deterioration or dysfunction but rather to an increased functional capacity as expert healer, teacher and ritual guide.”
Ari Brouwer, M.T.S.; Michael James Winkelman, M.P.H., Ph.D.; Charles L. Raison, M.D.
Research by Luhrmann et al. (2023) suggests that the structured practice of shamanic apprenticeship, including the guided use of plant medicines, can help individuals manage experiences that might otherwise be considered symptoms of mental illness. This underscores the importance of cultural context and support in transforming potentially distressing experiences into meaningful and beneficial ones.
Reconsidering the Connection
Despite the many observed similarities between the two conditions and the academic literature putting forth many reasonable arguments, you can see why ruling institutions dismissed these theories and abandoned this idea completely.
Essentially, for this theory to be confirmed, Westerners would need to admit to the existence of a spirit realm, acknowledge that a person is tapping into and sensing a realm of at least some veracity, and then integrate this idea into the scientific paradigm of Western civilization.
A culture which, for centuries now, has been based on scientific reason and abandoned many notions of spiritual or religious validity decades ago. This is evident through such statistics as the ever-increasing percentage of people who identify as atheist or agnostic.
An admission that would entail a radical shift in perspectives and a monumental societal change, to say the least. As well as one that has a far easier alternative, which is just to conclude that schizophrenia is nothing more than crazed thoughts.
But, with the mounting psychedelic renaissance, the increased acceptance of these substances, as well as the ideas that follow them, will this topic be revisited?
Will the peculiar similarities between these two conditions become readdressed in the light afforded by this rebirth?
References
Winkelman, M. (1996). “Psychointegrator Plants: Their Roles in Human Culture and Health.
Kuypers KP, Riba J, de la Fuente Revenga M, Barker S, Theunissen EL, Ramaekers JG. Ayahuasca enhances creative divergent thinking while decreasing conventional convergent thinking. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2016 Sep;233(18):3395-403. doi: 10.1007/s00213-016-4377-8. Epub 2016 Jul 19. PMID: 27435062; PMCID: PMC4989012.
Luhrmann, T. M., Dulin, J., & Dzokoto, V. (2023). “The Shaman and Schizophrenia, Revisited.” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry.
Brouwer, A., Winkelman, M. J., & Raison, C. L. (n.d.). Shamanism: Psychopathology and psychotherapy. Departments of Family Studies and Human Development, School of Human Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison; School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University; Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison; Vail Health Behavioral Health Innovation Center, Vail, CO; Center for the Study of Human Health, Emory University; Department of Spiritual Health, Emory University Woodruff Health Sciences Center.
Luhrmann, T. M., Dulin, J., & Dzokoto, V. (2023). The shaman and schizophrenia, revisited. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-023-09840-6
Klein, M. (2015, March 18). The shaman who transformed my schizophrenic son. Zócalo Public Square. Retrieved from https://www.zocalopublicsquare.org/2015/03/18/the-shaman-who-transformed-my-schizophrenic-son/ideas/nexus/
Noll, R. (n.d.). Shamanism and schizophrenia: A state-specific approach to the “schizophrenia metaphor” of shamanic states. The New School for Social Research.
Campbell, J. (n.d.). “The shaman swims in the same waters that the psychotic drowns in.” In The Power of Myth.
Brouwer, A., Winkelman, M. J., & Raison, C. L. Shamanism: Psychopathology and Psychotherapy.
- Department of Family Studies and Human Development, School of Human Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
- School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University (Retired), Tempe, AZ, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
- Vail Health Behavioral Health Innovation Center, Vail, CO, USA.
- Center for the Study of Human Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Department of Spiritual Health, Emory University Woodruff Health Sciences Center, Atlanta, GA, USA.
